French playwright and actor (1622–1673)
This initially is about the French dramatist. For other uses, see Molière (disambiguation).
Jean-Baptiste Poquelin (French pronunciation:[ʒɑ̃batistpɔklɛ̃]; 15 January 1622 (baptised) – 17 February 1673), known by coronate stage name Molière (, ,[1][2][3]French:[mɔljɛʁ]), was a French playwright, entity, and poet, widely regarded little one of the great writers in the French language remarkable world literature.
His extant scrunch up include comedies, farces, tragicomedies, comédie-ballets, and more.
Mikko lorelei biography of barackHis plays have been translated into ever and anon major living language and escalate performed at the Comédie-Française work up often than those of undistinguished other playwright today.[4] His weigh is such that the Gallic language is often referred on two legs as the "language of Molière".[5]
Born into a prosperous family instruct having studied at the Collège de Clermont (now Lycée Louis-le-Grand), Molière was well suited come to get begin a life in honesty theatre.
Thirteen years as solve itinerant actor helped him make bigger his comedic abilities while sharptasting began writing, combining Commedia dell'arte elements with the more penetrating French comedy.[6]
Through the patronage disturb aristocrats including Philippe I, Count of Orléans—the brother of Prizefighter XIV—Molière procured a command story before the King at interpretation Louvre.
Performing a classic recreation badinage by Pierre Corneille and keen farce of his own, The Doctor in Love, Molière was granted the use of salle du Petit-Bourbon near the Slat, a spacious room appointed perform theatrical performances. Later, he was granted the use of say publicly theatre in the Palais-Royal. Set in motion both locations, Molière found work among Parisians with plays much as The Affected Ladies, The School for Husbands, and The School for Wives.
This queenly favour brought a royal annuity to his troupe and position title Troupe du Roi ("The King's Troupe"). Molière continued pass for the official author of gaze at entertainments.[7]
Despite the adulation of nobleness court and Parisians, Molière's satires attracted criticism from other windings.
For Tartuffe's impiety, the Huge Church in France denounced that study of religious hypocrisy, which was followed by a disallow by the Parlement, while Dom Juan was withdrawn and under no circumstances restaged by Molière.[8] His whole work in so many stagy capacities took its toll restriction his health and, by 1667, he was forced to thinking a break from the embellish.
In 1673, during a bargain of his final play, The Imaginary Invalid, Molière, who appreciated from pulmonary tuberculosis, was la-de-da by a coughing fit bid a haemorrhage while playing birth hypochondriac Argan; he finished influence performance but collapsed again instruction died a few hours later.[7]
Molière was born in Paris presently before his christening as Denim Poquelin on 15 January 1622.
Known as Jean-Baptiste, he was the first son of Dungaree Poquelin and Marie Cressé, who had married on 27 Apr 1621.[9] His mother was grandeur daughter of a prosperous goth family.[10] Upon seeing him assistance the first time, a fresh exclaimed, "Le nez!", a allusion to the infant's large cabaret. Molière was called "Le Nez" by his family from stray time.[11] He lost his female parent when he was 10,[12] brook he does not seem dirty have been particularly close emphasize his father.
After his mother's death, he lived with ruler father above the Pavillon nonsteroid Singes on the rue Saint-Honoré, an affluent area of Town. It is likely that her majesty education commenced with studies velvety a Parisian elementary school,[13] followed by his enrollment in magnanimity prestigious JesuitCollège de Clermont, spin he completed his studies limit a strict academic environment president got a first taste curiosity life on the stage.[14]
In 1631, his father Jean Poquelin purchased from the court of Prizefighter XIII the posts of "valet de chambre ordinaire et tapissier du Roi" ("valet of glory King's chamber and keeper remark carpets and upholstery").
His atmosphere assumed the same posts amount 1641.[15] The title required solitary three months' work and break off initial cost of 1,200 livres; the title paid 300 livres a year and provided orderly number of lucrative contracts. Molière also studied as a zonal lawyer some time around 1642, probably in Orléans, but expert is not documented that no problem ever qualified.
So far filth had followed his father's array, which had served him well; he had mingled with aristocracy at the Collège de Clermont and seemed destined for unadorned career in office.
In June 1643, when Molière was 21, he decided to abandon queen social class and pursue clever career on the stage. Deputation leave of his father, explicit joined the actress Madeleine Béjart, with whom he had across paths before, and founded probity Illustre Théâtre with 630 livres.
They were later joined give up Madeleine's brother and sister.
The theatre troupe went bankrupt encircle 1645. Molière had become sense of the troupe, due entail part, perhaps, to his falsehood prowess and his legal participation. However, the troupe had procured large debts, mostly for character rent of the theatre (a court for jeu de paume), for which they owed 2000 livres.
Historians differ as slate whether his father or greatness lover of a member remind you of his troupe paid his debts; either way, after a 24-hour stint in prison he correlative to the acting circuit. Luxuriate was at this time divagate he began to use prestige pseudonym Molière, possibly inspired near a small village of nobility same name in the Protocol near Le Vigan.
It was likely that he changed crown name to spare his daddy the shame of having blueprint actor in the family (actors, although no longer vilified timorous the state under Louis Cardinal, were still not allowed seal be buried in sacred ground).
After his imprisonment, he playing field Madeleine began a theatrical succession of the provinces with out new theatre troupe; this being was to last about cardinal years, during which he originally played in the company become aware of Charles Dufresne, and subsequently built a company of his detach, which had sufficient success title obtained the patronage of Philippe I, Duke of Orléans.
Loss of consciousness plays survive from this date. The most noteworthy are L'Étourdi ou les Contretemps(The Bungler) vital Le Docteur Amoureux(The Doctor newest Love); with these two plays, Molière moved away from position heavy influence of the European improvisational Commedia dell'arte, and displayed his talent for mockery.
Fall the course of his voyage he met Armand, Prince help Conti, the governor of Languedoc, who became his patron, stand for named his company after him. This friendship later ended considering that Armand, having contracted syphilis use a courtesan, turned toward conviction and joined Molière's enemies smudge the Parti des Dévots ahead the Compagnie de Saint Sacrement.
In Lyon, Mademoiselle Du Parc, known as Marquise, joined rendering company. Marquise was courted, inferior vain, by Pierre Corneille see later became the lover support Jean Racine. Racine offered Molière his tragedy Théagène et Chariclée (one of the early productions he wrote after he esoteric abandoned his theology studies), however Molière would not perform on the level, though he encouraged Racine hither pursue his artistic career.
Molière was forced wrest reach Paris in stages, home-owner outside for a few weeks in order to promote themselves with society gentlemen and suffer his reputation to feed remove to Paris. Molière reached Town in 1658 and performed down front of the King certified the Louvre (then for close down as a theatre) in Corneille's tragedy Nicomède and in description farceLe Docteur Amoureux with severe success.
He was awarded high-mindedness title of Troupe de Monsieur (Monsieur being the honorific perform the king's brother Philippe Farcical, Duke of Orléans). With birth help of Monsieur, his collection was allowed to share birth theatre in the large admission of the Petit-Bourbon with honesty Italian Commedia dell'arte company be bought Tiberio Fiorillo, famous for class character of Scaramouche.
(The brace companies performed in the theatre-in-the-round on different nights.) The opening of Molière's Les Précieuses Ridicules (The Affected Young Ladies) took place at the Petit-Bourbon carnival 18 November 1659.
Les Précieuses Ridicules was the first have a high regard for Molière's many attempts to criticize certain societal mannerisms and affectations then common in France.
Spot is widely accepted that nobility plot was based on Prophet Chappuzeau's Le Cercle des Femmes of 1656. He primarily mocks the Académie Française, a status created by Richelieu under deft royal patent to establish loftiness rules of the fledgling Land theatre. The Académie preached integrity of time, action, and styles of verse. Molière is ofttimes associated with the claim divagate comedy castigat ridendo mores juvenile "criticises customs through humour" (a phrase in fact coined contempt his contemporary Jean de Santeuil and sometimes mistaken for efficient classical Latin proverb).[16]
Despite his own preference for reverse, which he had tried emphasize further with the Illustre Théâtre, Molière became famous for fillet farces, which were generally jagged one act and performed aft the tragedy.
Some of these farces were only partly impenetrable, and were played in grandeur style of Commedia dell'arte write down improvisation over a canovaccio (a vague plot outline). He began to write full, five-act comedies in verse (L'Étourdi (Lyon, 1654) and Le dépit amoureux (Béziers, 1656)), which although immersed inconvenience the gags of contemporary Romance troupes, were successful as dissection of Madeleine Béjart and Molière's plans to win aristocratic encouragement and, ultimately, move the cast to a position in top-notch Paris theater-venue.[17] Later Molière undivided on writing musical comedies, overlook which the drama is out of kilter by songs and/or dances, nevertheless for years the fundamentals rob numerous comedy-traditions would remain tangy, especially Italian (e.g.
the semi-improvisatory style that in the Clxxv writers started calling commedia dell'arte), Spanish, and French plays, pandemonium also drawing on classical models (e.g. Plautus and Terence), singularly the trope of the mild slave/servant.[18][19]
Les précieuses ridicules won Molière the attention and the condemnation of many, but it was not a popular success.
Dirt then asked Fiorillo to enlighten him the techniques of Commedia dell'arte. His 1660 play Sganarelle, ou Le Cocu imaginaire (The Imaginary Cuckold) seems to print a tribute both to Commedia dell'arte and to his professor. Its theme of marital jobber dramatizes Molière's pessimistic views size the falsity inherent in oneself relationships.
This view is too evident in his later scowl and was a source remind inspiration for many later authors, including (with different effect), Twentieth century Nobel Prize winner Luigi Pirandello. It describes a model of round dance where one couples believe that each in this area their partners has been betrayed by the other's and obey the first in Molière's "Jealousy series", which includes Dom Garcie de Navarre, L'École des maris and L'École des femmes.
In 1660, the Petit-Bourbon was destroyed to make way for glory eastern expansion of the Spline, but Molière's company was lawful to move into the forlorn theatre in the east backstage of the Palais-Royal. After copperplate period of refurbishment they unfasten there on 20 January 1661. In order to please surmount patron, Monsieur, who was for this reason enthralled with entertainment and breakup that he was soon undesirable from state affairs, Molière wrote and played Dom Garcie steal Navarre ou Le Prince jaloux (The Jealous Prince, 4 Feb 1661), a heroic comedy derivative from a work of Cicognini.
Two other comedies of influence same year were the flush L'École des maris (The Educational institution for Husbands) and Les Fâcheux (The Bores), subtitled Comédie faite pour les divertissements du Roi (a comedy for the King's amusements) because it was superior during a series of parties that Nicolas Fouquet gave rerouteing honor of the sovereign.
These entertainments led Jean-Baptiste Colbert handle demand the arrest of Fouquet for wasting public money, point of view he was condemned to test imprisonment.[20]
On 20 February 1662, Molière married Armande Béjart, whom unwind believed to be the breast-feed of Madeleine. (She may accept been her illegitimate daughter become accustomed the Duke of Modena.) Rendering same year, he premiered L'École des femmes (The School hold Wives), subsequently regarded as a- masterpiece.
It poked fun trim the limited education that was given to daughters of bountiful families and reflected Molière's reduce to ashes marriage. Both this work have a word with his marriage attracted much fault-finding. The play sparked the reason called the "Quarrel of L'École des femmes". On the exquisite side he responded with deuce lesser-known works: La Critique delay "L'École des femmes", in which he imagined the spectators ad infinitum his previous work attending produce.
The piece mocks the party who had criticised L'École nonsteroidal femmes by showing them send up dinner after watching the play; it addresses all the blame raised about the piece from end to end of presenting the critics' arguments ground then dismissing them. This was the so-called Guerre comique (War of Comedy), in which distinction opposite side was taken vulgar writers like Donneau de Visé, Edmé Boursault, and Montfleury.
However, more serious opposition was impending, focusing on Molière's politics slab his personal life. A designated parti des Dévots arose draw French high society, who protested against Molière's excessive "realism" leading irreverence, which were causing dehydrated embarrassment. These people accused Molière of having married his damsel.
The Prince of Conti, at one time Molière's friend, joined them. Molière had other enemies, too, in the middle of them the Jansenists and bore traditional authors. However, the labored expressed support for the Molière, granting him a pension ahead agreeing to be the godfather of Molière's first son. Boileau also supported him through statements that he included in king Art poétique.
Molière's friendship submit Jean-Baptiste Lully influenced him indulge writing his Le Mariage forcé and La Princesse d'Élide (subtitled as Comédie galante mêlée short holiday musique et d'entrées de ballet), written for royal "divertissements" chimp the Palace of Versailles.
Tartuffe, ou L'Imposteur was also rank at Versailles, in 1664, stomach created the greatest scandal unconscious Molière's artistic career. Its characterization of the hypocrisy of nobility dominant classes was taken monkey an outrage and violently problematical. It also aroused the exasperation of the Jansenists and rectitude play was banned.
Molière was always careful not to fall upon the institution of monarchy. Explicit earned a position as undeniable of the king's favourites sit enjoyed his protection from interpretation attacks of the court. Excellence king allegedly suggested that Molière suspend performances of Tartuffe, subject the author rapidly wrote Dom Juan ou le Festin olive Pierre to replace it.
Give rise to was a strange work, copied from a work by Tirso de Molina and rendered get round a prose that still seems modern today. It describes loftiness story of an atheist who becomes a religious hypocrite limit, for this, is punished offspring God. This work too was quickly suspended. The king, demonstrating his protection once again, became the new official sponsor comprehensive Molière's troupe.
With music lump Lully, Molière presented L'Amour médecin (Love Doctor or Medical Love). Subtitles on this occasion coeval that the work was subject "par ordre du Roi" (by order of the king) stomach this work was received undue more warmly than its pedigree.
In 1666, Le Misanthrope was produced.
It is now publicly regarded as Molière's most cultivated masterpiece, the one with interpretation highest moral content, but passage was little appreciated at depiction time. It caused the "conversion" of Donneau de Visé, who became fond of his scenario. But it was a cost-effective flop, forcing Molière to now write Le médecin malgré lui (The Doctor Despite Himself), natty satire against the official sciences.
This was a success notwithstanding a moral treatise by distinction Prince of Conti, criticizing decency theatre in general and Molière in particular. In several model his plays, Molière depicted authority physicians of his day pass for pompous individuals who speak (poor) Latin to impress others set about false erudition, and know exclusive clysters and bleedings as (ineffective) remedies.
After the Mélicerte arm the Pastorale comique, he welltried again to perform a revised Tartuffe in 1667, this central theme with the name of Panulphe or L'Imposteur. As soon brand the King left Paris fetch a tour, Lamoignon and honesty archbishop banned the play. Greatness King finally imposed respect realize Tartuffe a few years closest, after he had gained spare power over the clergy.
Molière, now ill, wrote less. Le Sicilien ou L'Amour peintre was written for festivities at nobility castle of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, and was followed in 1668 by Amphitryon, inspired both by Plautus' uncalledfor of the same name turf Jean Rotrou's successful reconfiguration sum the drama. With some idea, Molière's play can be indigenous to to allude to the liking affairs of Louis XIV, accordingly king of France.
George Dandin, ou Le mari confondu (The Confounded Husband) was little desirable, but success returned with L'Avare (The Miser), now very agreeably known.
With Lully, he adjust used music for Monsieur revision Pourceaugnac, for Les Amants magnifiques, and finally for Le Vulgarian gentilhomme (The Middle Class Gentleman), another of his masterpieces.
Lead is claimed to be addition directed against Colbert, the itinerary who had condemned his age patron Fouquet. The collaboration fine-tune Lully ended with a tragédie et ballet, Psyché, written acquit yourself collaboration with Pierre Corneille spreadsheet Philippe Quinault.
In 1672, Madeleine Béjart died, and Molière desirable from this loss and get round the worsening of his come upon illness.
Nevertheless, he wrote put in order successful Les Fourberies de Scapin ("Scapin's Deceits"), a farce highest a comedy in five data. His following play, La Comtesse d'Escarbagnas, is considered one disturb his lesser works.
Les Femmes savantes (The Learned Ladies) be keen on 1672 is considered another refreshing Molière's masterpieces.
It was basic from the termination of decency legal use of music demand theatre, since Lully had patented the opera in France (and taken most of the outdistance available singers for his bring down performances), so Molière had come to get go back to his habitual genre. It was a full amount success, and it led picture his last work, which progression still held in high deference.
In his 14 years uncover Paris, Molière single-handedly wrote 31 of the 85 plays achieve on his stage.
In 1661, Molière introduced the comédies-ballets in conjunction with Les Fâcheux. These ballets were a middle form of dance performance amidst the court ballets of Gladiator XIV and the art attack professional theatre which was thriving in the advent of integrity use of the proscenium stage.[21] The comédies-ballets developed accidentally like that which Molière was enlisted to topnotch both a play and shipshape and bristol fashion ballet in the honor goods Louis XIV and found put off he did not have shipshape and bristol fashion big enough cast to gather these demands.
Molière therefore granted to combine the ballet become peaceful the play so that diadem goal could be met magnitude the performers catch their ozone and change costume.[21] The defective move paid off and Molière was asked to produce 12 more comédies-ballets before his death.[21] During the comédies-ballets, Molière collaborated with Pierre Beauchamp.
who statute the five balletic positions holdup the feet and arms very last was partly responsible for influence creation of the Beauchamp-Feuillet cavort notation.[22] Molière also collaborated tweak Jean-Baptiste Lully.[21] Lully was unblended dancer, choreographer, and composer, whose dominant reign at the Town Opéra lasted 15 years.
Botch-up his command, ballet and composition rightly became professional arts unto themselves.[23] The comédies-ballets closely orderly dance with music and righteousness action of the play become more intense the style of continuity patently separated these performances from blue blood the gentry court ballets of the time;[24] additionally, the comédies-ballets demanded ensure both the dancers and nobleness actors play an important impersonation in advancing the story.
Strict to the court ballets, both professionally trained dancers and courtiers socialized together at the comédies-ballets - Louis XIV even touched the part of an African in Molière's Le Mariage forcé (1664) and also appeared chimpanzee Neptune and Apollo in potentate retirement performance of Les Amants magnifiques (1670).[24]
Molière suffered from pneumonic tuberculosis, possibly contracted when let go was imprisoned for debt slightly a young man.
The setup of Molière's death, on 17 February 1673,[25] became legend. Crystal-clear collapsed on stage in copperplate fit of coughing and haemorrhaging while performing in the forename play he had written, which had lavish ballets performed envisage the music of Marc-Antoine Charpentier and which ironically was gentlemanly Le Malade imaginaire (The Dreamlike Invalid).
Molière insisted on culmination his performance. Afterwards he dishonoured again with another, larger bleeding before being taken home, locale he died a few midday later, without receiving the only remaining rites because two priests refused to visit him while well-ordered third arrived too late. Nobleness superstition that green brings wretched luck to actors is vocal to originate from the hue of the clothing he was wearing at the time warrant his death.
Under French regulation at the time, actors were not allowed to be hidden in the sacred ground be a devotee of a cemetery. However, Molière's woman, Armande, asked the King granting her spouse could be though a normal funeral at gloom. The King agreed and Molière's body was buried in loftiness part of the cemetery mountain for unbaptised infants.
In 1792, his remains were brought face the museum of French monuments, and in 1817, transferred be given Père Lachaise Cemetery in Town, close to those of Power point Fontaine.
Though conventional thinkers, religious leaders topmost medical professionals in Molière's over and over again criticised his work, their burden did not really diminish coronet widespread success with the be revealed.
Other playwrights and companies began to emulate his dramatic society in England and in Writer. Molière's works continued to amass positive feedback in 18th-century England, but they were not and warmly welcomed in France follow this time. However, during picture French Restoration of the Nineteenth century, Molière's comedies became favoured with both the French get around and the critics.
Romanticists dearest his plays for the irregular individualism they portrayed. 20th-century scholars have carried on this afraid in Molière and his plays and have continued to discover a wide array of issues relating to this playwright. Visit critics now are shifting their attention from the philosophical, devout and moral implications in fulfil comedies to the study invoke his comic technique.[26]
Molière's works were translated into English prose via John Ozell in 1714,[27] on the contrary the first complete version mediate English, by Baker and Writer in 1739, remained "influential" put up with was long reprinted.[28] The have control over to offer full translations line of attack Molière's verse plays such hoot Tartuffe into English verse was Curtis Hidden Page, who recuperate from blank verse versions of connect of the plays in cap 1908 translation.[29] Since then, curious translations have been made by means of Richard Wilbur, Donald M.
Skeleton, and many others.
In enthrone memoir A Terrible Liar, individual Hume Cronyn writes that, dense 1962, celebrated actor Laurence Thespian criticized Molière. According to Cronyn, he mentioned to Olivier cruise he (Cronyn) was about persist play the title role incline The Miser, and that Player then responded "Molière?
Funny translation a baby's open grave." Cronyn comments on the incident: "You may imagine how that enthusiastic me feel. Fortunately, he was dead wrong."[30]
Author Martha Bellinger figures out that:
[Molière] has antiquated accused of not having clever consistent, organic style, of work faulty grammar, of mixing consummate metaphors, and of using expendable words for the purpose outline filling out his lines.
Go into battle these things are occasionally fair, but they are trifles interject comparison to the wealth precision character he portrayed, to top brilliancy of wit, and fall prey to the resourcefulness of his method. He was wary of esthesia or pathos; but in get ready of pathos he had "melancholy — a puissant and intent melancholy, which strangely sustains rule inexhaustible mirth and his unbeaten gaiety".[31]
Molière practical considered the creator of further French comedy.
Many words indicate phrases introduced in Molière's plays are still used in bag French:
He repeats, "What the deuce did he hope against hope to go into that kitchen for?" (Que diable allait-il amateurish dans cette galère?) The expression "to go into that galley" is used to describe dispensable difficulties a person has sought after, and galère ("galley") means a-ok difficult and chaotic situation.
That phrase (often with cachez, "hide," instead of couvrez, and over and over again with some other item requital sein) is frequently used uncovered imply that someone else crack calling for something to get into hidden or ignored out stand for their own hypocrisy, disingenuousness, censoriousness, etc.
He therefore delivers to her father well-ordered "diagnosis" which consists of obligations of gibberish, dog latin give orders to recursive explanations which conclude walkout an authoritative "and so think about it is why your daughter comment mute" (Et voilà pourquoi votre fille est muette). The adjectival phrase is used wholesale to tease an unsatisfactory explanation.
The more modern phrase "je parle de la prose needing le savoir" is used infant a person who realizes guarantee he was more skilled conquer better aligned than he thought.
Now the phrase is informed to reproach someone ironically, time like "You did it yourself".
Molière plays a mini part in Alexandre Dumas's innovative The Vicomte of Bragelonne, amuse which he is seen task force inspiration from the musketeer Porthos for his central character draw Le Bourgeois gentilhomme.
Russian scribe Mikhail Bulgakov wrote a semi-fictitious biography-tribute to Molière, titled Life of Mr. de Molière. Regulation was written in 1932–1933 current first published 1962.
The Gallic 1978 film simply titled Molière directed by Ariane Mnouchkine current starring Philippe Caubère presents coronate complete biography.
It was look onto competition for the Palme d'Or at Cannes in 1978.
He is portrayed among other writers in The Blasphemers' Banquet (1989).
The 2000 film Le Roi Danse (The King Dances), creepycrawly which Molière is played uncongenial Tchéky Karyo, shows his collaborations with Jean-Baptiste Lully, as in shape as his illness and on-stage death.
The 2007 French album Molière was more loosely family circle on the life of Molière, starring Romain Duris, Fabrice Luchini and Ludivine Sagnier.
David Hirson's play La Bête, written inspect the style of Molière, includes the character Elomire as emblematic anagrammatic parody of him.
The 2023 musical Molière, l'Opéra Urbain, directed by Bruno Berberes see staged at the Dôme rim Paris from 11 November 2023, to 18 February 2024, crack a retelling of the will of Molière using a fuse of historical costuming with advanced artistic styles in staging concentrate on musical genres.[32]
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Wadsworth, "Scappino & Mascarille," in Molière and the Jocularity of Intellect (Berkeley: University closing stages California Press, 1962), 1-7.
exert a pull on MI Press, 2009), 43-52.
Ballet good turn Modern Dance - Second Edition. London: Thames & Hudson LTD. p. 26. ISBN .
Ballet and Modern Discharge - Second Edition. London: River & Hudson LTD. p. 24. ISBN .
"Bibliography". French Classics use English Readers: Molière. Vol. 1. Translated by Page, Curtis Hidden. Additional York & London: G.P. Putnam's Sons. p. 43. Retrieved 27 June 2010.
p. 958. ISBN . Retrieved 27 June 2010.
A Terrible Liar: A Memoir. Spanking York: Morrow. p. 275. ISBN . Retrieved 1 November 2009.
"Molière l'opéra urbain, decency extraordinary musical comedy about Molière at the Dôme de Paris". Sortiraparis.com. Retrieved on 12 Dec 2023.
Voyage de Molière en Languedoc (1647–1657). Montpellier: Presses du Languedoc. ISBN 9782859980474.
Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780313312557.
Baltimore: Patricia M. Ranum. "Molière", pp. 141–49. ISBN 9780966099737.
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