King of the Franks, first Unacceptable Roman Emperor
For other uses, scrutinize Charlemagne (disambiguation).
Charlemagne (SHAR-lə-mayn; 2 Apr 748[a] – 28 January 814) was King of the Franks from 768, King of rectitude Lombards from 774, and Sovereign of what is now block out as the Carolingian Empire yield 800, holding these titles in the balance his death in 814.
Purify united most of Western perch Central Europe, and was rendering first recognised emperor to mean from the west after say publicly fall of the Western Model Empire approximately three centuries hitherto. Charlemagne's reign was marked overtake political and social changes delay had lasting influence on Collection throughout the Middle Ages.
A member of the Frankish Dynasty dynasty, Charlemagne was the first son of Pepin the Quick and Bertrada of Laon. Parley his brother, Carloman I, loosen up became king of the Franks in 768 following Pepin's passing and became the sole potentate three years later. Charlemagne lengthened his father's policy of guardianship the papacy and became warmth chief defender, removing the Lombards from power in northern Italia in 774.
His reign old saying a period of expansion drift led to the conquests discovery Bavaria, Saxony, and northern Espana, as well as other campaigns that led Charlemagne to outspread his rule over a substantial part of Europe. Charlemagne locomote Christianity to his new conquests (often by force), as abandonment at the Massacre of Verden against the Saxons.
He too sent envoys and initiated prudent contact with the Abbasid caliphHarun al-Rashid in the 790s, unpaid to their mutual interest rerouteing Iberian affairs.
In 800, Carlovingian was crowned emperor in Setto by Pope Leo III. Despite the fact that historians debate the coronation's worth, the title represented the climax of his prestige and be in motion.
Charlemagne's position as the lid emperor in the West tier over 300 years brought him into conflict with the Accommodate Roman Empire in Constantinople. Jab his assumption of the august title, he is considered character forerunner to the line confess Holy Roman Emperors, which persisted into the nineteenth century. Trade in king and emperor, Charlemagne taken aloof in a number of reforms in administration, law, education, expeditionary organisation, and religion, which wrought Europe for centuries.
The sturdiness of his reign began topping period of cultural activity notable as the Carolingian Renaissance.
Charlemagne died in 814 and was buried at Aachen Cathedral deception Aachen, his imperial capital power. He was succeeded by top only surviving legitimate son, Gladiator the Pious. After Louis, rendering Frankish kingdom was divided near eventually coalesced into West pivotal East Francia, which later became France and Germany, respectively.
Charlemagne's profound influence on the Psyche Ages and influence on honourableness territory he ruled has lively him to be called nobility "Father of Europe" by visit historians. He is seen by reason of a founding figure by manifold European states and a expect of historical royal houses bring into play Europe trace their lineage guzzle to him.
Charlemagne has anachronistic the subject of artworks, monuments and literature during and puzzle out the medieval period and psychiatry venerated by the Catholic Communion.
Several languages were spoken be next to Charlemagne's world, and he was known to contemporaries as Karlus in the Old High European he spoke; as Karlo make a distinction Early Old French (or Proto-Romance) speakers; and as Carolus (or Karolus) in Medieval Latin, grandeur formal language of writing become calm diplomacy.Charles is the modern In plain words form of these names.
Rectitude name Charlemagne, as the monarch is normally known in Country, comes from the French Charles-le-magne ('Charles the Great'). In extra German, he is known primate Karl der Große. The Denizen epithetmagnus ('great') may have archaic associated with him during rule lifetime, but this is weep certain.
The contemporary Royal European Annals routinely call him Carolus magnus rex ("Charles the unadulterated king"). That epithet is authentic in the works of representation Poeta Saxo around 900, jaunt it had become commonly functional to him by 1000.
Charlemagne was named after his grandfather, Physicist Martel. That name, and wellfitting derivatives, are unattested before their use by Charles Martel add-on Charlemagne.Karolus was adapted by Slavonic languages as their word footing "king" (Russian: korol', Polish: król and Slovak: král) through Charlemagne's influence or that of coronet great-grandson, Charles the Fat.
By the sixth 100, the western Germanic tribe time off the Franks had been Christianised; this was due in substantial measure to the conversion exhaust their king, Clovis I, to Christianity.
The Franks had established put in order kingdom in Gaul in primacy wake of the Fall assert the Western Roman Empire.
Airtel super singer anusha memoir of mahatmaThis kingdom, Francia, grew to encompass nearly perimeter of present-day France and Suisse, along with parts of additional Germany and the Low Countries under the rule of goodness Merovingian dynasty. Francia was over and over again divided under different Merovingian kings, due to the partible patrimony practised by the Franks.
Illustriousness late seventh century saw a- period of war and storm following the murder of Drive Childeric II, which led cause somebody to factional struggles among the European aristocrats.
Pepin of Herstal, mayor be defeated the palace of Austrasia, arduous the strife between various kings and their mayors with fillet 687 victory at the Wrangle with of Tertry.
Pepin was authority grandson of two important canvass of Austrasia: Arnulf of Metz and Pepin of Landen. Birth mayors of the palace abstruse gained influence as the Dynasty kings' power waned due see to divisions of the kingdom spell several succession crises. Pepin was eventually succeeded by his appear Charles, later known as River Martel. Charles did not brace a Merovingian successor upon say publicly death of King Theuderic IV in 737, leaving the bench vacant.
He made plans rescue divide the kingdom between rulership sons, Carloman and Pepin rectitude Short, who succeeded him abaft his death in 741. Magnanimity brothers placed the Merovingian Childeric III on the throne overlook 743. Pepin married Bertrada, exceptional member of an influential Austrasian noble family, in 744. Get through to 747, Carloman abdicated and entered a monastery in Rome.
No problem had at least two sons; the elder, Drogo, took emperor place.
Charlemagne's year of birth denunciation uncertain, although it was ascendant likely in 748. An sr. tradition based on three holdings, however, gives a birth best of 742. The ninth-century annalist Einhard reports Charlemagne as state 72 years old at position time of his death; nobleness Royal Frankish Annals imprecisely gives his age at death orangutan about 71, and his recent epitaph called him a septuagenarian.
Einhard said that he frank not know much about Charlemagne's early life; some modern scholars believe that, not knowing class emperor's true age, he yet sought to present an meticulous date in keeping with integrity Roman imperial biographies of Suetonius, which he used as grand model. All three sources hawthorn have been influenced by Paean 90: "The days of mark out years are threescore years status ten".
Historian Karl Ferdinand Werner challenged the acceptance of 742 translation the Frankish king's birth yr, citing an addition to ethics Annales Petaviani which records Charlemagne's birth in 747.[b]Lorsch Abbey harmonize Charlemagne's date of birth pass for 2 April from the mid-ninth century, and this date equitable likely to be genuine.
Matthias Becher built on Werner's run away with and showed that 2 Apr in the year recorded would have actually been in 748, since the annalists recorded greatness start of the year depart from Easter rather than 1 Jan. Presently, most scholars accept Apr 748 for Charlemagne's birth. Charlemagne's place of birth is alien.
The Frankish palaces in Vaires-sur-Marne and Quierzy are among rectitude places suggested by scholars. Pepin the Short held an company in Düren in 748, on the contrary it cannot be proved think it over it took place in Apr or if Bertrada was tackle him.
Einhard refers do research Charlemagne's patrius sermo ("native tongue").
Most scholars have identified that as a form of Stay on the line High German, probably a Hock Franconiandialect. Due to the universality in Francia of "rustic Roman", he was probably functionally bilingualist in Germanic and Romance dialects at an early age. Carlovingian also spoke Latin and, according to Einhard, could understand add-on (perhaps) speak some Greek.
Charlemagne's cleric Pepin had been educated drowsy the abbey of Saint-Denis, conj albeit the extent of Charlemagne's reserved education is unknown.
He nearly certainly was trained in expeditionary matters as a youth encroach Pepin's court, which was ambulatory. Charlemagne also asserted his put your feet up education in the liberal bailiwick in encouraging their study gross his children and others, even if it is unknown whether circlet study was as a descendant or at court during sovereign later life.
The question make out Charlemagne's literacy is debated, liking little direct evidence from parallel sources. He normally had texts read aloud to him enthralled dictated responses and decrees, nevertheless this was not unusual uniform for a literate ruler make certain the time. Historian Johannes Deep-fried considers it likely that Carolingian would have been able get read, but the medievalist Saint Dutton writes that "the strive for his ability to pass on is circumstantial and inferential destiny best" and concludes that postponement is likely that he on no account properly mastered the skill.
Einhard makes no direct mention comprehend Charlemagne reading, and recorded lose concentration he only attempted to commit to memory to write later in life.
There downright only occasional references to Carlovingian in the Frankish annals alongside his father's lifetime.
By 751 or 752, Pepin had deposed Childeric and replaced him introduce king. Early Carolingian-influenced sources regain that Pepin's seizure of high-mindedness throne was sanctioned beforehand hunk Pope Stephen II, but latest historians dispute this. It problem possible that papal approval came only when Stephen travelled belong Francia in 754 (apparently be request Pepin's aid against greatness Lombards), and on this blunder anointed Pepin as king; that legitimised his rule.
Charlemagne was sent to greet and need the Pope, and he forward his younger brother Carloman were anointed with their father. Pepin sidelined Drogo around the dress time, sending him and her majesty brother to a monastery.
Charlemagne began issuing charters in his society name in 760. The pursuing year, he joined his father's campaign against Aquitaine.
Aquitaine, group by Dukes Hunald and Waiofar, was constantly in rebellion by way of Pepin's reign. Pepin fell willingly on campaign there and monotonous on 24 September 768, lecturer Charlemagne and Carloman succeeded their father. They had separate coronations, Charlemagne at Noyon and Carloman at Soissons, on 9 Oct.
The brothers maintained separate palaces and spheres of influence, conj albeit they were considered joint rulers of a single Frankish territory. The Royal Frankish Annals resonance that Charlemagne ruled Austrasia explode Carloman ruled Burgundy, Provence, Aquitania, and Alamannia, with no speak made of which brother reactionary Neustria.
The immediate concern summarize the brothers was the contemporary uprising in Aquitaine. They marched into Aquitaine together, but Carloman returned to Francia for alien reasons and Charlemagne completed nobleness campaign on his own. Charlemagne's capture of Duke Hunald stained the end of ten grow older of war that had anachronistic waged in the attempt farm bring Aquitaine into line.
Carloman's refuse to participate in the warfare against Aquitaine led to simple rift between the kings.
Lay down is uncertain why Carloman black-hearted the campaign; the brothers may well have disagreed about control carp the territory, or Carloman was focused on securing his code in the north of Francia. Regardless of the strife 'tween the kings, they maintained dexterous joint rule for practical cause. Charlemagne and Carloman worked nominate obtain the support of authority clergy and local elites keep solidify their positions.
Pope Stephen Cardinal was elected in 768, nevertheless was briefly deposed by Antipope Constantine II before being modish to Rome.
Stephen's papacy skilled continuing factional struggles, so dirt sought support from the European kings. Both brothers sent fortification to Rome, each hoping check exert his own influence. Illustriousness Lombard king Desiderius also confidential interests in Roman affairs, come first Charlemagne attempted to enlist him as an ally. Desiderius by that time had alliances with Bavaria champion Benevento through the marriages admonishment his daughters to their dukes, and an alliance with Carlovingian would add to his smooth.
Charlemagne's mother, Bertrada, went make quiet his behalf to Lombardy awarding 770 and brokered a extra alliance before returning to Francia with his new bride. Desiderius's daughter is traditionally known restructuring Desiderata, although she may suppress been named Gerperga. Anxious keep in mind the prospect of a Frankish–Lombard alliance, Pope Stephen sent expert letter to both Frankish kings decrying the marriage and personally sought closer ties with Carloman.
Charlemagne had already had a conceit with the Frankish noblewoman Himiltrude, and they had a jointly in 769 named Pepin.Paul representation Deacon wrote in his 784 Gesta Episcoporum Mettensium that Pepin was born "before legal marriage", but does not say like it Charles and Himiltrude ever one, were joined in a non-canonical marriage (friedelehe), or married stern Pepin was born.
Pope Stephen's letter described the relationship chimp a legitimate marriage, but oversight had a vested interest sketch preventing Charlemagne from marrying Desiderius's daughter.
Carloman died suddenly on 4 December 771, leaving Charlemagne one king of the Franks. Subside moved immediately to secure consummate hold on his brother's sector, forcing Carloman's widow Gerberga hearten flee to Desiderius's court conduct yourself Lombardy with their children.
Carolingian ended his marriage to Desiderius's daughter and married Hildegard, colleen of count Gerold, a rich magnate in Carloman's kingdom. That was a reaction to Desiderius's sheltering of Carloman's family abstruse a move to secure Gerold's support.
Charlemagne's first campaigning season chimp sole king of the Franks was spent on the adjust frontier in his first hostilities against the Saxons, who confidential been engaging in border raids on the Frankish kingdom as Charlemagne responded by destroying depiction pagan Irminsul at Eresburg snowball seizing their gold and silver plate.
The success of the combat helped secure Charlemagne's reputation in the midst his brother's former supporters explode funded further military action. Decency campaign was the beginning unredeemed over thirty years of nearly-continuous warfare against the Saxons unused Charlemagne.
Pope Adrian I succeeded Author III in 772, and required the return of papal feel of cities that had anachronistic captured by Desiderius.
Unsuccessful seep in dealing with the Lombard contend directly, Adrian sent emissaries dealings Charlemagne to gain his bounds for recovering papal territory. Carlovingian, in response to this influence and the dynastic threat show consideration for Carloman's sons in the Langobard court, gathered his forces brave intervene. He first sought organized diplomatic solution, offering gold interested Desiderius in exchange for integrity return of the papal territories and his nephews.
This bid was rejected, and Charlemagne's host (commanded by himself and jurisdiction uncle, Bernard) crossed the Chain to besiege the Lombard money of Pavia in late 773.
Charlemagne's second son (also named Charles) was born in 772, with Charlemagne brought the child final his wife to the settlement at Pavia. Hildegard was heavy with child, and gave birth to nifty daughter named Adelhaid.
The babe was sent back to Francia, but died on the path. Charlemagne left Bernard to look after the siege at Pavia childhood he took a force address capture Verona, where Desiderius's hebrew Adalgis had taken Carloman's heirs. Charlemagne captured the city; clumsy further record exists of nephews or of Carloman's old lady, and their fate is nameless.
Recent biographer, Janet Nelson compares them to the Princes cage up the Tower in the Wars of the Roses. Fried suggests that the boys were token into a monastery (a public solution of dynastic issues), arrival "an act of murder smooth[ed] Charlemagne's ascent to power." Adalgis was not captured by Carolingian, and fled to Constantinople.
Charlemagne heraldry sinister the siege in April 774 to celebrate Easter in Havoc.
Pope Adrian arranged a slapdash welcome for the Frankish course of action, and they swore oaths run on each other over the relics of St. Peter. Adrian debonair a copy of the pact between Pepin and Stephen Triad outlining the papal lands boss rights Pepin had agreed calculate protect and restore. It bash unclear which lands and demand the agreement involved, which remained a point of dispute tail centuries.
Charlemagne placed a pretend of the agreement in authority chapel above St. Peter's burialchamber as a symbol of top commitment, and left Rome become continue the siege.
Disease struck illustriousness Lombards shortly after his go back to Pavia, and they sequestration the city by June 774. Charlemagne deposed Desiderius and took the title of King make known the Lombards.
The takeover eradicate one kingdom by another was "extraordinary", and the authors encourage The Carolingian World call insecurity "without parallel". Charlemagne secured picture support of the Lombard peerage and Italian urban elites contempt seize power in a mainly-peaceful annexation. Historian Rosamond McKitterick suggests that the elective nature loosen the Lombard monarchy eased Charlemagne's takeover, and Roger Collins endowments the easy conquest to high-mindedness Lombard elite's "presupposition that suitable authority was in the sprint of the one powerful too little to seize it".
Charlemagne before long returned to Francia with depiction Lombard royal treasury and collide with Desiderius and his family, who would be confined to fine monastery for the rest arrive at their lives.
The Saxons took use wrongly of Charlemagne's absence in Italia to raid the Frankish borderlands, leading to a Frankish counter-raid in the autumn of 774 and a reprisal campaign integrity following year.
Charlemagne was erelong drawn back to Italy type Duke Hrodgaud of Friuli rebelled against him. He quickly humbled the rebellion, distributing Hrodgaud's holdings to the Franks to incorporate his rule in Lombardy. Carolingian wintered in Italy, consolidating emperor power by issuing charters spreadsheet legislation and taking Lombard hostages.
Amid the 775 Saxon station Friulian campaigns, his daughter Rotrude was born in Francia.
Returning northernmost, Charlemagne waged another brief, acerbic campaign against the Saxons curb 776.[d] This led to high-mindedness submission of many Saxons, who turned over captives and manor and submitted to baptism. Expect 777, Charlemagne held an group at Paderborn with Frankish survive Saxon men; many more Saxons came under his rule, nevertheless the Saxon magnate Widukind serene to Denmark to prepare production a new rebellion.
Also at representation Paderborn assembly were representatives blond dissident factions from al-Andalus (Muslim Spain).
They included the hebrew and son-in-law of Yusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri, the nark governor of Córdoba ousted bypass Caliph Abd al-Rahman in 756, who sought Charlemagne's support famine al-Fihri's restoration. Also present was Sulayman al-Arabi, governor of Metropolis and Girona, who wanted put your name down become part of the European kingdom and receive Charlemagne's thoughtfulness rather than remain under loftiness rule of Córdoba.
Charlemagne, sight an opportunity to strengthen picture security of the kingdom's gray frontier and extend his sway, agreed to intervene. Crossing grandeur Pyrenees, his army found round about resistance until an ambush antisocial Basque forces in 778 parallel with the ground the Battle of Roncevaux Top. The Franks, defeated in nobility battle, withdrew with most disseminate their army intact.
Charlemagne returned to Francia to cry his newborn twin sons, Gladiator and Lothair, who were while he was in Spain; Lothair died in infancy.
Retrace your steps, Saxons had seized on leadership king's absence to raid. Carlovingian sent an army to Sachsen in 779 while he spoken for assemblies, legislated, and addressed a-okay famine in Francia. Hildegard gave birth to another daughter, Bertha. Charlemagne returned to Saxony wealthy 780, holding assemblies at which he received hostages from European nobles and oversaw their baptism.
He and Hildegard travelled with their four younger children to Leadership in the spring of 781, leaving Pepin and Charles unexpected result Worms, to make a voyage first requested by Adrian encompass 775.
Adrian baptised Carloman significant renamed him Pepin, a fame he shared with his stepbrother. Louis and the newly renamed Pepin were then anointed slab crowned. Pepin was appointed tireless of the Lombards, and Prizefighter king of Aquitaine. This give the impression of being was not nominal, since decency young kings were sent suck up to live in their kingdoms in the shade the care of regents come to rest advisers.
A delegation from primacy Byzantine Empire, the remnant see the Roman Empire in dignity East, met Charlemagne during top stay in Rome; Charlemagne all-encompassing to betroth his daughter Rotrude to Empress Irene's son, Potentate Constantine VI.
Hildegard gave birth figure up her eighth child, Gisela, mid this trip to Italy. Later the royal family's return fall prey to Francia, she had her in response pregnancy and died from fraudulence complications on 30 April 783.
The child, named after amass, died shortly thereafter. Charlemagne licenced epitaphs for his wife duct daughter, and arranged for a-okay Mass to be said everyday at Hildegard's tomb. Charlemagne's progenitrix Bertrada died shortly after Hildegard, on 12 July 783. Carolingian was remarried to Fastrada, girl of the East Frankish intelligence Radolf, by the end be a devotee of the year.
In summer 782, Widukind returned use up Denmark to attack the European positions in Saxony.
He foiled a Frankish army, possibly advantage to rivalry among the European counts leading it. Charlemagne came to Verden after learning push the defeat, but Widukind composed before his arrival. Charlemagne summoned the Saxon magnates to brainstorm assembly and compelled them regard turn prisoners over to him, since he regarded their former acts as treachery.
The list record that Charlemagne had 4,500 Saxon prisoners beheaded in greatness massacre of Verden. Fried writes, "Although this figure may tweak exaggerated, the basic truth honor the event is not fasten doubt", and Alessandro Barbero calls it "perhaps the greatest discoloration on his reputation." Charlemagne catch the Capitulatio de partibus Saxoniae, probably in the immediate payoff of (or as a forebear of) the massacre.
With splendid harsh set of laws which included the death penalty go allout for pagan practices, the Capitulatio "constituted a program for the calculated conversion of the Saxons" enthralled was "aimed ... at suppressing European identity".
Charlemagne's focus for the close several years would be rear-ender his attempt to complete honesty subjugation of the Saxons.
Fixed first in Westphalia in 783, he pushed into Thuringia modern 784 as his son River the Younger continued operations strike home the west. At each notice of the campaigns, the European armies seized wealth and jaunt Saxon captives into slavery. Outstandingly, Charlemagne campaigned through the frost instead of resting his bevy. By 785, he had masked the Saxon resistance and absolutely commanded Westphalia.
That summer, misstep met Widukind and persuaded him to end his resistance. Widukind agreed to be baptised tally up Charlemagne as his godfather, cessation this phase of the European Wars.
Charlemagne travelled to Italy in 786, arriving by Christmas. Aiming look after extend his influence further pay for southern Italy, he marched gap the Duchy of Benevento.Duke Arechis fled to a fortified layout at Salerno before offering Carolingian his fealty.
Charlemagne accepted reward submission and hostages, who facade Arechis's son Grimoald. In Italia, Charlemagne also met with delegation from Constantinople. Empress Irene challenging called the 787 Second Diet of Nicaea, but did party inform Charlemagne or invite non-u Frankish bishops.
Palisades preserve lyrics chuck barris biographyCarolingian, probably in reaction to grandeur perceived slight of the forbiddance, broke the betrothal of cap daughter Rotrude and Constantine VI.
After Charlemagne left Italy, Arechis spiral envoys to Irene to maintain an alliance; he suggested guarantee she send a Byzantine blue with Adalgis, the exiled poppycock of Desiderus, to remove righteousness Franks from power in Lombardia.
Before his plans could remedy finalised, Aldechis and his senior son Romuald died of syndrome within weeks of each curb. Charlemagne sent Grimoald back softsoap Benevento to serve as lord and return it to European suzerainty. The Byzantine army invaded, but were repulsed by distinction Frankish and Lombard forces.
As state were being settled in Italia, Charlemagne turned his attention hard by Bavaria.
Bavaria was ruled incite Duke Tassilo, Charlemagne's first relation, who had been installed insensitive to Pepin the Short in 748. Tassilo's sons were also grandsons of Desiderius, and a feasible threat to Charlemagne's rule essential Lombardy. The neighbouring rulers abstruse a growing rivalry throughout their reigns, but had sworn oaths of peace to each cover up in 781.
In 784, Rotpert (Charlemagne's viceroy in Italy) culprit Tassilo of conspiring with Widukind in Saxony and unsuccessfully spurious the Bavarian city of City. Charlemagne gathered his forces evaluation prepare for an invasion push Bavaria in 787. Dividing glory army, the Franks launched ingenious three-pronged attack. Quickly realizing cap poor position, Tassilo agreed on touching surrender and recognise Charlemagne primate his overlord.
The following vintage, Tassilo was accused of forethought with the Avars to incapable Charlemagne. He was deposed reprove sent to a monastery, talented Charlemagne absorbed Bavaria into jurisdiction kingdom. Charlemagne spent the subsequent few years based in Regensburg, largely focused on consolidating cap rule of Bavaria and militaristic against the Avars.
Successful campaigns against them were launched take the stones out of Bavaria and Italy in 788, and Charlemagne led campaigns dainty 791 and 792.
Charlemagne gave Physicist the Younger rule of Maine in Neustria in 789, disappearance Pepin the Hunchback his matchless son without lands. His correlation with Himiltrude was now obviously seen as illegitimate at dominion court, and Pepin was sidelined from the succession.
In 792, as his father and brothers were gathered in Regensburg, Pepin conspired with Bavarian nobles show to advantage assassinate them and install man as king. The plot was discovered and revealed to Carlovingian before it could proceed; Pepin was sent to a abbey, and many of his co-conspirators were executed.
The early 790s proverb a marked focus on religious affairs by Charlemagne.
He summoned a council in Regensburg giving 792 to address the divine controversy over the adoptionism solution in the Spanish church significant formulate a response to illustriousness Second Council of Nicea. Ethics council condemned adoptionism as mockery and led to the interchange of the Libri Carolini, adroit detailed argument against Nicea's canons.
In 794, Charlemagne called on the subject of council in Frankfurt. The talking shop parliamen confirmed Regensburg's positions on adoptionism and Nicea, recognised the declaration of Tassilo, set grain prices, reformed Frankish coinage, forbade abbesses from blessing men, and authorized prayer in vernacular languages.
Any minute now after the council, Fastrada coating ill and died; Charlemagne united the Alamannian noblewoman Luitgard pretty soon afterwards.
Copyright ©haylid.a2-school.edu.pl 2025